In the 1860s, Swiss chemist Friedrich Miescher discovered human DNA. This discovery assisted scientists in uncovering truths about our ancient ancestors. Even in 2018, researchers made new findings. This excavation unearthed various old mysteries, including a hitherto undiscovered group of ancient humans. Read about their discoveries here.
Two Skeletons That Are 11,500 Years Old
In 2018, archaeologists discovered the skeletons of two Native American infants. They were both 11,500 years old and members of the same family. These were not regular skeletons. They were well-preserved enough to help scientists understand early humanity. In fact, they include information about the first humans to visit North America.
Two 11,500 Year Old Skeletons
Researchers Visited a Remote Alaskan Location
In the early 2000s, anthropology professor Ben Potter started working in Upward Sun River, Alaska. This forested location is 50 miles from Fairbanks and only accessible by helicopter. Despite the rough terrain, Potter had a valid cause for excavating there. That area of Alaska was once connected to Europe and Africa.
Researchers Visited a Remote Alaskan Location
What Is Beringia?
When Pangea began to disintegrate, several land corridors remained between the continents. The earliest known humans were born in Africa, but they spread around the world. Beringia served as a bridge between Siberia and Alaska. Many archaeologists believe that the first North American inhabitants crossed that bridge around 34,000 years ago. However, this was only a theory.
What Is Beringia
The Beringian Standstill Hypothesis
Many historians assume that early humans reached Beringia, although they don’t know who accomplished it. One proposal, known as the Beringian standstill hypothesis, attempts to address this. According to the concept, the “Ancient Beringians” lived alone on Beringia due to the ice and hard environment. If this is accurate, archeologist Jennifer Raff believes the Beringians are the sole forefathers of all Native Americans.
The Beringian Standstill Hypothesis
Native Americans still reside close to the Upward Sun River, in fact.
The name “Upward Sun River” is a translation of the Athabascan language, Xaasaa Na’, which is still spoken by Native Americans in Alaska. It’s also part of their area. Potter interacted with Native Americans during his excavations. They are typically fiercely protective of their burial grounds; nonetheless, they recognized the value of Potter’s work and offered to assist him.
Native Americans still reside close to the Upward Sun River, in fact.
The First Discovery: A Three-Year-Old Child
In 2010, Potter and other University of Alaska scholars investigated the Upward Sun River. They found the cremated remains of a three-year-old child. At 11,500 years old, this discovery was extremely rare. Unfortunately, the skeleton was not sufficiently preserved to extract DNA from. Scientists could not even determine the gender.
The First Discovery A Three Year Old Child
Despite The Letdown, Potter Didn’t Give Up
Despite their modest success, Potter and his colleagues refused to give up. They continued excavating in that area for another eight years. Potter and his colleagues, José Víctor Moreno Mayar and Lasse Vinner, got their big break. They discovered an approximately 15,000-year-old burial site in Alaska.
Despite The Letdown, Potter Didn’t Give Up
At last, they discovered the skeletons of two babies
Potter and his team unearthed two newborn skeletons. One appeared to be stillborn, while the other was between six and twelve weeks old. The two, like the three-year-old, appeared to have been incinerated, with their ashes resting on a fire pit. However, these remains were better kept and easier to identify.
At last, they discovered the skeletons of two babies
The Burial Ground Was Well-Preserved
The two infants were buried behind several things and covered in red ochre. This ochre, which was most likely used at the funeral, helped to preserve the skeletons. The babies were also buried under a mixture of sand and soil. This high-acid mixture is great for preservation. Clearly, the individuals who buried them loved them very much.
The Burial Ground Was Well Preserved
Who Were The Two Girls?
DNA tests confirmed that both infants were female and related, likely first cousins. The stillborn died at 30 weeks gestation, having never had the opportunity to live. The local Native community dubbed the girls “Xach’itee’aanenh T’eede Gaay” (Sunrise Girl-Child) and “Yełkaanenh T’eede Gaay” (Dawn Twilight Girl-Child).
Who Were The Two Girls
There were other items in the grave as well
This burial was obviously important to the mourners. Archaeologists found several more objects in the burial, including antlers and spear points. The two girls were buried together in a joint funeral. However, Sunrise Girl (the six-week-old newborn) appeared to be better maintained and provided the foundation for the majority of the DNA results.
There were other items in the grave as well
What, Exactly, Were The Researchers Studying?
To investigate the DNA, geneticists had to delve into the mitochondria. Science students remember mitochondria as “the powerhouse of the cell” because cells die without them. Every cell in the body has DNA, and the mitochondria power the cells. As a result, the scientists require healthy cells to examine—which is easier said than done.
What, Exactly, Were The Researchers Studying
Here’s Why They Couldn’t Study The Three-Year-Old
Old bones are not guaranteed to contain living cells. If scientists want to investigate DNA, they need a bone that is thick enough and well kept. Researchers usually test the petrous bone, which is located at the base of the skull. Because the three-year-old’s bones were too destroyed, researchers were unable to examine the DNA. However, with the two infants, they could.
Here’s Why They Couldn’t Study The Three Year Old
What Came From The DNA Tests?
Sunrise Girl’s ethnicity was confirmed by the first wave of DNA tests conducted at the University of Alaska. According to the findings, she was closely related to Native Americans, but in a unique way. Scientists believe her DNA is significantly older than any previously analyzed remains. In other words, she represents a hitherto unknown genetic community of Native Americans.
What Came From The DNA Tests
They Revealed A New Ancient Human
This previously undiscovered DNA, identified as USR1, dates back at least 20,000 years and possibly up to 34,000 years. According to Eske Willerslev, a professor at the University of Copenhagen and co-author of the study, they are the oldest known Native Americans. “It changes our understanding of the timing of events that formed the genetics of Native Americans,” Willerslev told CNN Health.
They Revealed A New Ancient Human
They may be Beringians from ancient times
Sunrise Girl’s DNA supports the Beringian standstill concept. Scientists believe she could be an Ancient Beringian, something specialists have only speculated about previously. “We think the explanation for this pattern, the one that requires the least movement, was that Native Americans were somewhere in Beringia 20,000 years ago,” noted Victor Moreno Mayar, another research author.
They may be Beringians from ancient times.
But The Two Girls Had Different DNA
The initial DNA study was performed on the six-week-old’s skull. Geneticists predicted that the second infant will have comparable DNA. But, unexpectedly, she didn’t. Dawn Twilight Girl, the stillborn, was investigated at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark. She had a completely different maternal ancestry than her first cousin, and the two were not linked.
But The Two Girls Had Different DNA
Researchers Say Native Americans Had Two Branches
Geneticists have divided Native Americans into two groups: northern and southern. The Northern group originated from East Asia and most likely lived in North America, including Alaska and Canada. At some point, the tribe divided, and the Southern Native Americans relocated to South America. They were all derived from the Ancient Beringians, but the split caused variances in their DNA.
Researchers Say Native Americans Had Two Branches
The Two Infants Had Different Ethnicities
Simply put, DNA tests revealed that both ladies belonged to two distinct groups. Sunrise Girl belonged to the Ancient Beringias, but Dawn Twilight Girl came from a different ethnicity, one more closely related to Northern Native Americans. This raises the question of how these two groups of people ended up in the same location at the same time.
The Two Infants Had Different Ethnicities
However, Sunrise Girl Belonged To A Mysterious Third Group
Surprisingly, Sunrise Girl did not belong in either of these categories. This indicates that the Ancient Beringians were divided into at least three tribes, if not more. Using demographic modeling, scientists determined that Native Americans left East Asia 36,000 years ago. By 20,000 years ago, this group had divided. But, if they separated, why were these two infants buried together?
However, Sunrise Girl Belonged To A Mysterious Third Group
All Groups Split Off From One
Archaeologists thought that the two groups came together at least once, which explains why the girls were linked. They provided two options for this. The Beringians may have separated before crossing the bridge, only to reconnect later. Alternatively, the Beringians might have divided after crossing. Potter prefers the latter theory.
All Groups Split Off From One
Perhaps They Split Before Beringia
Potter has a notion about how these two groups came together. During an interview with The Atlantic, he suggested that both tribes had crossed Beringia independently. Perhaps they went down different routes at various times. Normally, this notion would appear far-fetched. However, there is some evidence to back this up.
Perhaps They Split Before Beringia
Support For Potter’s Theory
In 2017, archaeologists investigated the Bluefish Caves in Canada’s Yukon Territory. According to an investigation of these caverns, experts discovered evidence of human-cut patterns that were 24,000 years old. If this is correct, as Raff believes, then humans reached Beringia at least 24,000 years ago. It was more than a decade before the two girls were born.
Support For Potter’s Theory
Still, There Are Many Unanswered Questions
Although the finding of the girls confirmed many assumptions, it also created a number of issues. What happened to the Beringians? How did they come to Siberia in the first place? Given the rarity of these findings, these questions are unlikely to be answered anytime soon. Furthermore, not all specialists agree with Potter’s beliefs, complicating matters.
Still, There Are Many Unanswered Questions
A Few Specialists Disputed Potter’s Findings
The biggest objection against this finding is that it is only one finding. Dennis O’Rourke, a geneticist and archaeologist, believes that a single sample is insufficient to analyze the total human population. “We could know something about the extent of diversity in this early Beringian population with greater certainty if we had multiple genomes,” O’Rourke told The Smithsonian Magazine.
A Few Specialists Disputed Potter’s Findings
However, These Findings Are Exceptionally Rare
However, finding more than one sample is easier said than done. “It’s difficult to convey to you how rare they are,” Potter told The Atlantic. According to co-researcher Willerslev, prior to this discovery, scientists could only study this DNA in modern-day Alaskans and Siberians. Without additional samples, no one will know where the Beringians came from.
However, These Findings Are Exceptionally Rare
Plus, Upward River Is Too Young For Ancient Humans
Despite the age of Upward River’s burial grounds, archeologist Brian T. Wygal believes it is too young to understand early humans. “The earliest proven trace of human activity in eastern Beringia dates to around 14.1-thousand-years-ago,” Wygal told me, “making the Upward Sun River site nearly 3,000 years too young to be representative of the initial human colonization of the New World.”
Plus, Upward River Is Too Young For Ancient Humans
What Happened To The Beringians?
After Potter’s discovery was published in the scientific magazine Nature, many people wondered what happened to the Beringians. “We don’t know,” Potter informed CNN. Again, this question requires additional data to be answered. However, Potter intends to collect DNA samples from nearby residents. Because scientists know what Beringian DNA looks like, they can determine whether the gene still exists in Natives.
What Happened To The Beringians
What Were The Beringians Like?
Research has offered a glimpse into the Beringian’s life. Potter described them as adept hunters who ate bison, elk, rabbits, squirrels, and birds. They most likely hunted with organized groups. Potter also discovered evidence of “salmon exploitation” reaching back 6,000 years, indicating that the Beringians presumably fished and traded as well.
What Were The Beringians Like
They Might Have Evolved Into The Modern Native Americans
Potter proposed that the Beringian gene may have integrated into Alaska’s indigenous peoples. This is the natural outcome of evolution. “It is possible that incoming Athabaskan ancestors, who are widespread throughout the region today, replaced or absorbed the Ancient Beringians inhabiting that area,” according to Potter. If this is accurate, many people may have Beringian ancestry without realizing it.
They Might Have Evolved Into The Modern Native Americans
The Life-Threatening Diagnosis
In 2015, experts diagnosed Chris Long with acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome. But to Chris, those scientific phrases meant blood cancer. The father of two had an aberrant tumor in his bone marrow, infecting his blood cells. Patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) have a 24% likelihood of survival. The sole therapeutic option is to combine chemotherapy and a bone marrow transplant. While considering his options, Chris realized that his future was grim.
The Life Threatening Diagnosis
What Is A Bone Marrow Transplant?
A bone marrow transplant replaces malignant bone marrow with healthy marrow. Because bone marrow produces red and white blood cells, patients must undergo surgery before their blood gets too unhealthy. Before Chris could receive the transplant, he had to go through chemotherapy to kill the dangerous cells. Then he needed to find a donor whose cells would not harm his body. It was difficult, but thankfully, there are many donors around the world.
What Is A Bone Marrow Transplant
Finding The Right Donor Is Harder Than It Sounds
However, locating a bone marrow donor is more difficult than finding a blood donor. Doctors test the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) of donors to see if they are a match. HLA is a protein used by the immune system to distinguish between your cells and those of others. Each person carries six distinct HLA markers. A DNA test swab of the inside of your cheek can help doctors determine your HLA. If the six indicators match, the donor’s cells will not be considered “foreign” by the patient’s immune system.
Finding The Right Donor Is Harder Than It Sounds
An Unusual Bargain
Fortunately, Chris quickly discovered his donor, an unnamed German man. Chris was an information technology professional with the Washoe County Sheriff’s Department in Reno, Nevada. They were worlds apart. Chris’s gloomy diagnosis went around his office. When the news reached them, Washoe County forensic scientists became interested in his case. They presented Chris with a unique chance that would confront the scientific community just a few years later.
An Unusual Bargain
Can Your DNA Change?
Renee Romero, who led Washoe County’s crime lab, learned about Chris’s circumstances via a colleague. Renee had been considering if a bone marrow donation might change Chris’s DNA. Renee approached Chris about the opportunity to participate in an experiment. “We need to swab the Hell out of you before you do this procedure to see how this DNA takes over your body,” she recalled saying to him.”
Can Your DNA Change
A Human Guinea Pig
After hearing Renee’s proposition, Chris agreed. He welcomed the distraction from his catastrophic prognosis and the difficult road to recovery. During the chat, he allegedly informed Renee, “I don’t even know if I will live.” Regardless, Chris started the joint experiment. Chris acted as a human guinea pig, allowing scientists to collect DNA samples from him before undergoing surgery. During Chris’s remission and recovery, the scientists would continue to monitor his DNA.
A Human Guinea Pig
Results Came Faster Than Expected
After his bone marrow transplant, Chris was in remission for four years. Renee and her crime lab colleagues, however, kept an eye on him during his travels. Four months later, they tested Chris’s blood. The genetic coding in his blood has been replaced with DNA from his German donor. After his bone marrow transplant, Chris was in remission for four years. Renee and her crime lab colleagues, however, kept an eye on him during his travels. Four months later, they tested Chris’s blood. The genetic coding in his blood has been replaced with DNA from his German donor.
Results Came Faster Than Expected
How Chris Transformed Into Another Person
For four years, forensic scientists monitored Chris’s DNA samples. Within months, swabs from his arms, legs, body, and face had been replaced with his donor’s. Surprisingly, these results varied throughout the trial. Some swabs included both Chris’ and the donor’s DNA. An even more startling discovery was that Chris’s sperm had its DNA replaced. Except for the hair on his breast and head, every part of his body had new DNA by the end of four years.
How Chris Transformed Into Another Person
The Shock Of A Lifetime
The findings perplexed the forensic experts at the Washoe County Sheriff’s Office. Nobody expected Chris’s DNA to be completely replaced by his donor. Criminalist Darby Steinmetz stated, “We were kind of shocked that Chris was no longer present at all.” Chris was similarly stunned by the facts, but not to the point of despair. He told the New York Times, “I thought it was pretty incredible that I could disappear and someone else can appear.”
The Shock Of A Lifetime
He Is A Real-Life Chimera
So, what happened to Christopher? Chris became a chimera as a result of the bone marrow transplant, which is a scientific name for persons who have two sets of DNA. The name is derived from a creature in Greek mythology that was a mixture of three animals. Prior to Chris’ work, forensic scientists were aware that some medical procedures can generate chimerism. But they never looked into where the donor’s DNA replaced the patient’s in the body. The fact that 99% of Chris’s DNA had changed sparked concerns in the medical community.
He Is A Real Life Chimera
This Has Been Studied Before
Chimerism from bone marrow transplants has been studied previously. In 2004, Bone Marrow Transplantation found that marrow transplants replace at least some of the patient’s blood DNA. Even blood transfusions can temporarily replace DNA in the patient’s blood. However, these research solely examined DNA alterations in blood. Prior to the Chris study, scientists had not investigated how a patient’s DNA changes throughout their body. In this regard, his situation defied all expectations.
This Has Been Studied Before
Will Chris Remain The Same Person?
Chris’s case had far-reaching ramifications for scientists beyond Nevada. One niggling worry was whether Chris would be the same guy with someone else’s DNA. Dr. Andrew Rezvani, a blood and marrow transplant specialist at Stanford University, says yes. “Their brain and personality should remain the same,” he told The Independent. He also stated that if Chris’s donor were female, it would not transform him to the feminine sex. “It doesn’t matter,” Dr. Rezvani replied simply.
Will Chris Remain The Same Person
For The Doctors, This Isn’t An Issue
Although medical specialists recognize the DNA change, they do not regard it as a problem. As long as the transplant is successful, the change will not cause any medical complications. The patient’s medical history and mind remain unchanged. So, what is the issue? For Renee and her colleagues, the DNA change is significant. As forensic experts, they saw Chris’s case through the lens of crime prevention, and they understood that the DNA change could mean the difference between life and death for some.
For The Doctors, This Isn’t An Issue
…But It Could Throw Off Criminal Investigations
Chris’s DNA alteration revealed a slew of new issues to forensic scientists. When criminal detectives seek down offenders, they rely on DNA swabs to link them to a single person. What happens if the DNA matches two people, one in Nevada and one ten years younger in Germany? Brittney Chilton, a criminalist in the forensic science section, believes that this DNA mutation could mislead investigators. It may result in someone being wrongly accused of a crime they did not commit.
…But It Could Throw Off Criminal Investigations
This Mix-Up Has Happened Before
Alaskan criminal detectives believed they had nabbed a criminal when they uploaded a DNA sample to a database in 2004. There was only one issue: the man was in jail at the time of the incident. But DNA samples are perfect, correct? It turned out that the criminal’s sibling had undergone a bone marrow transplant. He was found guilty, and a year after, crime detection scientist Abirami Chidambaram presented the evidence in 2005. This is the exact situation that Chilton was referring to.
This Mix Up Has Happened Before
But That’s Not The Only Problem
Chilton believes that chimeras present a new challenge to the medical community. In 2008, research professor Yongbin Eom attempted to identify the victim of an automobile accident in Seoul, South Korea. His DNA indicated that he was female, but his physique was male. The victim had gotten a bone marrow transplant from his daughter. Chimeras have two sets of DNA: their own and their donor’s. This could prevent medical investigators from correctly identifying a body.
But That’s Not The Only Problem
How Have Scientists Not Caught This Before?
Every year, thousands of patients undergo bone marrow transplants. Patients suffering from leukemia, sickle cell anemia, or lymphoma are frequently advised to undergo surgery. So, how did this difficulty not arise earlier? Here’s the thing: it does. Bone marrow transplants have already disrupted criminal investigations. Renee’s study was the first comprehensive scientific investigation into DNA alterations. The team presented Chris’s case at the international forensic science conference in September 2019.
How Have Scientists Not Caught This Before
Chimeras May Be Common (And In Trouble)
According to studies, chimerism can occur in 21% of triplets and 8% of twins. However, these findings do not indicate how frequent the illness may be. If these chimera news pieces had not been published, many people would be unaware that chimerism occurs. Most people do not have a paternity test to ensure that they are linked to their biological family. As a result, many people could be chimeras without realizing it. It only becomes a concern when a person’s life is at stake.
Chimeras May Be Common (And In Trouble)
Parents Could Lose Their Children
Chimerism can sometimes split families. Lydia Fairchild submitted a child support application in 2002. But DNA tests revealed that she was not connected to her children. During the case, she became pregnant with her third child, who still had different DNA while in the womb. Even though a judge had arranged for a witness to be present at her third child’s birth, the courts prioritized her DNA tests over her doctor’s testimony. Fortunately, she was identified as a chimera; else, she would have lost her children.
Parents Could Lose Their Children
What About Their Offspring?
Long’s case prompted another inquiry. If a patient’s DNA altered and they had a child, would they produce someone else’s child? Renee asked three bone marrow transplant physicians for a solution to her topic. Although the experts acknowledged that it was an intriguing subject, they were skeptical that a child’s DNA would change. “There shouldn’t be any way for someone to father someone else’s child,” Dr. Rezvani stated. After all, donor blood cells should not produce new sperm cells.
What About Their Offspring
Could Chris Have His Donor’s Child?
Why did Chris’s sperm alter since transplants aren’t supposed to impact it? According to Mehrdad Abedi, Chris’ doctor, his sperm alteration was most likely caused by his vasectomy. Because sperm cannot migrate, their DNA changes. Would the same result occur if Chris had not undergone a vasectomy? We don’t know, and scientists can’t test it on Chris. Previously, sperm DNA studies revealed the donor’s DNA rather than the patient’s. Time will tell.
Could Chris Have His Donor’s Child
Chimeras Can Occur Naturally
Human chimeras are not just the product of bone marrow transplantation. For example, there is a “vanishing twin,” which occurs when one fraternal embryo dies prematurely. The remaining embryo absorbs the twin’s DNA, giving the infant two sets of DNA. Some pregnant mothers may retain some of their baby’s DNA. This trait, known as microchimerism, affects approximately 63% of women, including those beyond 94 years old. The New York Times describes microchimerism as “very common, if not universal.”
Chimeras Can Occur Naturally
But Identifying Chimeras Is Very Difficult
To make problems worse, it is difficult to determine whether someone is a chimera. In 2015, parents realized that their newborn’s blood type and DNA did not match their own. They suspected that the clinic had used incorrect sperm. Stanford geneticist Barry Starr suggested that the couple get a DNA test. Oddly, the test revealed that the father was the child’s uncle. “Human chimerism is very common, but exquisitely difficult to identify, coming to light almost exclusively by accidents like this,” explained biologist Charles Boklage to Buzzfeed News.
But Identifying Chimeras Is Very Difficult
How This Study Impacted The Future
Chris’s situation has swayed many people’s views on DNA tests. Previously, DNA tests were deemed infallible in the trial. However, the study reveals that typical situations may render DNA tests less reliable than previously supposed. Chimeras have no health or medical risks, but they impede criminal investigators who rely on DNA tests to identify a perpetrator. As more chimeric cases emerge, forensic experts will need to reconsider how they examine DNA evidence.
How This Study Impacted The Future
Where Is Chris Now?
Chris Long has recovered from his AML. He is currently healthy and has no problems as a chimera (he is entirely innocent!) He told the Independent that he planned to travel to Germany to thank his donor for saving his life. Chris has not stated if he will continue working with the forensic scientists. Renee and her colleagues have stated that they would continue to study the implications of chimerism, particularly how it affects a patient’s progeny.
Where Is Chris Now